Today we begin our journey into the history of the Garamantes, a civilization from the Libyan Sahara. This fascinating civilization transformed the barren wasteland of the Idehan Ubari into an impressive metropolis of late antiquity. Our current episode examines the prehistory of Libya through close inspection of rock art.

The Bantu Migration is one of the most important and seminal events in the history of the African continent. But what if this theory of Bantu origins, concocted by a European colonial administrator trying to understand the history of the continent he was colonizing, was entirely off base? What are some of the holes in the theory of Bantu expansion? What are its strengths which have withstood through the criticism? And, with a revised and iterated view of Bantu expansion, how does this theory impact our understanding of the History of Africa.

Bantu is a term which has become one of the most contentious in the study of African history. The name of a language family stretching across much of the southern half of the African continent, the term has been used in many distinct ways. In anthropology, it has often extended beyond mere linguistics into an idea of a larger shared culture and history across southern and central Africa. In apartheid South Africa, "Bantu" was used as a euphemism for "black" in many of the country's most oppressive apartheid laws. Furthermore, debates around the origins of the original Bantu-speaking peoples and their purported spread throughout the southern half of the continent are a historiographical point of contention. In this episode, we examine the origins of the idea of Bantu languages, as well as different theories on Bantu origins and how they were so successful in spreading across such a vast geographic area.

In a betrayal of previous commitments to Madagascar, Britain revoked its recognition of Malagasy sovereignty in a deal with France, in exchange for French recognition of a British protectorate over Zanzibar. Soon after this deal, the French invaded Madagascar, landing troops in Mahajanga and Toamasina. The final war to conquer Madagascar had begun. Support the show

Rainilaiarivony makes a desperate bet to try and repair his nation's floundering economy following the end of the French blockade of Madagascar. His desperate solution: to open Madagascar's long dormant gold mines for business. Support the show

As the French begin their invasion of Madagascar's major ports in 1883, the queen of Madagascar falls deathly ill. In this atmosphere of chaos, the prime minister Rainilaiarivony must mount a desperate attempt to protect Merina sovereignty with the help of an unexpected ally. Support the show

As Malagasy prime minister Rainilaiarivony tries to distance his kingdom from French commercial interests, the French strike back. Eager to avenge his country's recent defeat in Europe, the French head of state becomes increasingly invested in colonial conquest. In an effort to drum up international support, Malagasy diplomats make a trip to London, Paris, and New York City. Support the show

As Rainilaiarivony radically reforms the government, educational system, and economy of the Kingdom of Madagascar, queen Ranavalona II radically reforms its religion when she officially converts the Merina Kingdom to Christianity. Support the show

In the aftermath of the controversial coup against Radama II, the new head of state, prime minister Rainivoninahitriniony, was in a tumultuous position. He and the fellow orchestrators of the coup had committed the unprecedented act of overthrowing the mpanjaka Imerina. He attempted to legitimize the bureaucratic takeover by marrying one of Radama's wives, Rasoherina, as well as drafting a new constitution for Imerina. While the constitution would last, Rainivoninahitriniony did not, and he was himself overthrown by his brother in 1864. This brother was Rainilaiarivony, one of the top ranking generals in the Malagasy army, who proceeded to implement a de facto military dictatorship, overthrowing his brother and declaring himself prime minister. While Rasoherina remained the official head of state, Rainilaiarivony was the true power behind the throne. Support the show

Radama II had a short reign over Madagascar, and his legacy is heavily debated. Charitable accounts of his reign paint him as a forward-thinking and humanitarian reformer, the "Renaissance Prince of Madagascar." However, more critical accounts highlight his capitulation to foreign interests and unwillingness to adhere to Merina norms of power sharing, leading to a dysfunctional government. Support the show

Ranavalona reluctantly begins to thaw the relations between her island kingdom and her long-time French adversaries. However, when a French businessman immediately tries to take advantage of the thaw, and prepares a coup to overthrow Ranavalona, place her son in power, and create a company with a monopoly on the Malagasy economy. Support the show

Ranavalona has a reputation that precedes her as Madagascar's most unhinged and cruel despot. However, while this narrative is based in some truth, it severely lacks in an understanding of the nuances of her reign. This episode examines the truth and fiction behind Ranavalona's reputation as the "mad empress" of Madagascar Support the show

Due to sickness, I'm releasing a premium episode from the vault while I take the time to recover. This premium episode focused on Abraham Samuel, a mixed-race Caribbean man who joined a pirate crew seeking adventure, freedom, and riches, only to suddenly find himself king of his own small country in southern Madagascar. Support the show

The economic progress made under Ranavalona's early reign was seemingly awe-inspiring. The country had rapidly transformed from a feudal state pumping endless sums of cash into perpetually failing companies, into a more coherent system of state-run capitalism. However, this economic progress came at an enormous human price and was propped up by a system of horrifically brutal exploitation.This episode will focus on unfree labor within the Merina economy, with a focus on how the Merina system justified and explained the use of enslaved and corvee labor, the effect that reliance on unfree labor had on the Merina economy, and how unfree laborers responded to their oppression. Support the show

Ranavalona hires a new group of foreign artisans like Jean Laborde and James Cameron to hasten the transformation of Madagascar into a modern, industrialized economy. Will the Merina Kingdom become the first industrialized country in Africa? Support the show

When Radama I died without a clear heir, his wife, Ranavalona I, allied with a group of military officers to secure her place as the new queen of Madagascar. Almost immediately, she was faced with numerous challenges, including revolts from conquered peoples, criminal lynch mobs attacking Christians, growing resentment against missionary schools, a stumbling economy, and a French invasion of the largest Malagasy port. Not to mention she has to do it all while ruling as a woman - something which had never happened before in Merina history. Support the show

An industrial revolution in Southeast Africa? Following the abolition of the slave trade in 1817, the future of the economy of Imerina was in flux. Looking for a replacement for the system of slave trading, the Merina king Radama initiates a strategy of industrialization, one of the first intentional industrialization initiatives in history. Large iron forging complexes, agricultural processing facilities, leather tanning centers, and gunpowder manufacturing facilities were all part of Radama's plan to replace the slave trade economy with one of finished good manufacturing. Support the show

Prior to his coronation, the king of Imerina, Radama, promised to his father that he would expand the kingdom towards the coast. In 1817, he accomplished this goal, conquering the largest port on Madagascar's eastern coast, Toamasina. But this was only the beginning. With a new coastal possession, Imerina was launched into a global world of international politics. Starting in 1817, Radama initiated a crusade to "modernize" his kingdom, launching radical new reforms to its systems of education, economy, industry, and architecture. In a sense, the reforms of the Merina kingdom mark the first period of history in which an African country tries to "catch up" with Europe, a phenomenon still relevant throughout Africa to this day. Imerina's fate in this quest is an informative story to follow for anyone interested in the questions of why certain countries are rich, others are poor, and how this relationship may be changed. Support the show

If his father is the most remembered king in Madagascar, Radama is probably the best-known Malagasy king in the rest of the world. Radama is famous not only for leading the first major push to unify his home island but also for his later efforts to modernize and industrialize the Merina Empire. But how did this fascinating man come to power in the first place? Today, we track Radama's ascent from heir to the throne to the most powerful king in the history of Madagascar. Support the show

In our last episode, Andrianampoinimerina reunited the warring kingdoms of Imerina after seven decades of intermittent civil war. While this alone is a significant achievement, Andrianampoinimerina also had to shoulder the considerable burden of trying to repair his economically and socially devastated kingdom. Through smart and efficient use of the Fanamapoana corvee labor system, Andrianampoinimerina directed the repair, construction, and maintenance of hundreds of canals and dams, which greatly revitalized the region's agricultural output. Combined with the end of the Sakalava raids, this resulted in a major population boom. Soil depletion and overpopulation, however, forced Merina people to expand their territory for further settlement, at the expense of neighboring people. Support the show